Right of Way Rules and Collision Avoidance

Private Pilot License (PPL) Notes

This section covers the right-of-way rules and collision avoidance techniques essential for safe flight operations, focusing on the categories and classes of aircraft, the principles behind right-of-way rules, and practical scanning methods to prevent collisions.

Categories and Classes of Aircraft:

1. Aircraft Categories as per Federal Aviation Regulations:
   1. Airplanes
   2. Rotorcraft
   3. Powered-lift
   4. Gliders
   5. Lighter than air
   6. Weight-shift-control
   7. Powered parachute
2. Aircraft Classes within Categories:
   1. Airplane Classes:
      1. Single-engine land
      2. Multi-engine land
      3. Single-engine sea
      4. Multi-engine sea
   2. Rotorcraft Classes:
      1. Helicopters
      2. Gyroplanes
   3. Lighter than Air Classes:
      1. Airships
      2. Free balloons
   4. No class divisions for:
      1. Gliders
      2. Powered-lift
      3. Powered parachute
      4. Weight-shift-control aircraft

Right of Way Rules:

1. Underlying Principle:
   1. Less maneuverable aircraft have the right of way.
2. Order of Right of Way (from most to least priority):
   1. Aircraft in distress
   2. Gliders and balloons
   3. Aircraft towing or refueling another aircraft
   4. Airships
   5. Airplanes, powered-lift, rotorcraft, weight-shift-control, and powered parachutes
3. Specific Situations:
   1. Head-On Approach:
      1. Each pilot shall alter course to the right.
   2. Converging Aircraft (Same Category):
      1. The aircraft to the other's right has the right of way.
   3. Overtaking Aircraft:
      1. The aircraft being overtaken has the right of way.
      2. The overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right.
   4. Landing Aircraft:
      1. An aircraft on final approach or landing has the right of way over other aircraft in flight or operating on the surface.
      2. If two or more aircraft are approaching to land, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right of way but should not cut in front of or overtake another aircraft on final approach.
4. Responsibility to Avoid Collisions:
   1. Having the right of way does not relieve a pilot from the responsibility to avoid a collision.
   2. Always be prepared to yield the right of way to avoid unsafe situations.

Collision Avoidance and Scanning Techniques:

1. Maintain Vigilance:
   1. Continuously scan all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit.
2. Effective Scanning Techniques:
   1. Use a series of short, spaced eye movements covering 10-degree segments.
   2. Observe each segment for about one second.
   3. Develop a comfortable scanning pattern, such as left to right.
3. Dividing Attention:
   1. Balance scanning outside with tasks inside the cockpit.
   2. Allow eyes time to adjust when shifting focus from instruments to outside.
4. Reducing Eye Fatigue:
   1. Start the scan from the left wing tip, move across the sky, then look inward to the cabin.
   2. Regularly shift focus to prevent eye fatigue.
5. Adjusting for Climbs and Descents:
   1. Make gentle banks to the left and right to increase visibility.
6. Use of the Horizon:
   1. Aircraft above the horizon are likely at a higher altitude; those below are at a lower altitude.
   2. An aircraft that appears stationary is likely on a collision course.
7. Evasive Action:
   1. If an aircraft is on a collision course, take immediate evasive action.
8. High Traffic Areas:
   1. Be especially alert near navigation stations and in airport traffic patterns.
   2. Perform clearing turns before training maneuvers.
9. Good Cockpit Management:
   1. Reduce time spent looking inside the cabin.
   2. Keep the windshield clean and unobstructed.
   3. Use exterior lights during the day to increase visibility.

Radio Communication Failures and Light Gun Signals:

1. Radio Failures:
   1. Two-way radio communication is required at tower-controlled airports.
   2. Radio failures can occur; they may be partial or total.
2. Procedures in Event of Radio Failure:
   1. If the transmitter works:
      1. Broadcast your intentions.
      2. Request light gun signals from the tower.
   2. If the receiver works:
      1. Monitor the tower frequency for instructions.
   3. If unable to receive instructions:
      1. Stay above or outside the traffic pattern.
      2. Observe traffic flow and join the pattern when safe.
      3. Look for light gun signals from the tower.
      4. Acknowledge signals by rocking your wings.
3. Light Gun Signals:
   1. Used to communicate with aircraft when radios fail.
   2. Signals include:
      1. Steady Green: Cleared to land or take off.
      2. Flashing Green: Return for landing or cleared to taxi.
      3. Steady Red: Give way to other aircraft or stop.
      4. Flashing Red: Airport unsafe; do not land or taxi clear of runway.
      5. Flashing White: Return to starting point on airport (ground only).
      6. Alternating Red and Green: Exercise extreme caution.
   3. Controllers can only approve or disapprove anticipated actions.
4. Importance of Knowing Light Gun Signals:
   1. Essential for certification tests.
   2. Although rare in practice, understanding them is important for safety.

Understanding the right-of-way rules, effective collision avoidance techniques, and procedures during radio communication failures are crucial aspects of a pilot's knowledge and practice. Always prioritize safety by being vigilant, following regulations, and being prepared for unexpected situations.