Four Fundamentals Part 2

Private Pilot License (PPL) Notes

This section covers the essentials of straight and level flight, climbs, and descents, focusing on techniques for maintaining control and precision in aircraft operation.

Straight and Level Flight:

• Straight and level flight involves maintaining a constant heading and altitude.
• Maintaining level flight:
  • Select a pitch attitude that keeps a reference point on the nose aligned with the horizon.
  • This reference point varies with pilot's eye level and seat position.
  • Use wing and wingtip positions as additional pitch attitude cues.
• Divide attention to prevent fixed stare and to scan for other aircraft.
• Use the altimeter to verify altitude is maintained:
  • If gaining altitude, apply forward pressure to lower the nose.
  • If descending, apply back pressure to raise the nose.
  • Trim the aircraft to relieve control pressure.
• Use the attitude indicator when the horizon isn't visible.
• Monitor other instruments for cues:
  • The airspeed indicator should remain constant in level flight.
  • Significant changes indicate pitch or power adjustments are needed.
  • The vertical speed indicator shows rate of climb or descent but has a lag.
• Understand the relationship between power, pitch, airspeed, and altitude:
  • Changing power without changing pitch affects climb or descent.
  • Changing pitch without changing power affects airspeed.
• Flying straight:
  • Select ground reference points to maintain direction.
  • Use headings parallel or perpendicular to roads, fences, or field boundaries.
  • Use the heading indicator to ensure a constant direction.
• Ensure wings are level:
  • Visually check wingtip positions relative to the horizon.
  • Use the attitude indicator and heading indicator for confirmation.
• Use instruments to maintain straight flight:
  • The attitude indicator shows changes in bank.
  • The heading indicator shows indirect bank through heading changes.
  • The turn coordinator indicates turns and aids in maintaining straight flight.
  • The inclinometer (ball) shows coordinated flight; center the ball.
• Trim the aircraft properly to maintain attitude without constant control pressure.
• Avoid common errors:
  • Resting arm on the control yoke causing unintended bank.
  • Holding unnecessary aileron or rudder pressure.

Climbs:

• A climb is a maneuver where pitch and power allow the aircraft to gain altitude.
• Normal climb:
  • The most efficient combination of airspeed and power for altitude gain.
  • Used to achieve the best rate of climb.
• Initiating a climb:
  • Simultaneously apply back pressure on the elevator and set throttle for climb power.
  • As airspeed decreases to climb speed (approximately 77 knots for the Skyhawk), increase right rudder pressure to compensate for left-turning tendency.
  • Use rudder, not aileron, to maintain straight flight and reduce drag.
• Climb attitude and airspeed:
  • Use a pitch reference point and the attitude indicator to maintain climb attitude.
  • Check the airspeed indicator to maintain the proper climb speed.
  • Scan the airspace for other aircraft while dividing attention among references.
• Adjusting airspeed during climb:
  • If airspeed is too low, lower the pitch attitude.
  • If airspeed is too high, raise the pitch attitude.
• Climbing turns:
  • Use shallow banks to minimize reduction in climb rate.
  • More back elevator pressure is needed to maintain climb attitude.
  • Use increased rudder pressure for coordination due to down aileron drag.
• Leveling off from a climb:
  • Start level-off about 50 feet before the desired altitude.
  • Gradually lower the nose to the level flight attitude to prevent altitude overshoot or loss.
  • Maintain climb power until airspeed approaches cruise speed, then set cruise power.
• Trim the aircraft to relieve control pressures during climb.

Descents:

• Descents can be made at various airspeeds and rates.
• Normal glide (low or idle power descent):
  • Used during landing approach.
  • Provides the greatest forward travel for altitude lost.
  • Recommended glide speed is approximately 65 knots for training aircraft.
• Initiating a descent:
  • Reduce power and apply back pressure to maintain altitude initially.
  • Allow airspeed to decrease to glide speed, then lower pitch attitude to maintain this speed.
  • Trim the aircraft for hands-off flight.
• Adjusting glide:
  • If airspeed is too high, raise the pitch attitude.
  • If airspeed is too low, lower the pitch attitude.
  • Use airspeed indicator to fine-tune adjustments.
• Use of instruments and trimming:
  • Establish pitch attitude using the horizon or attitude indicator.
  • Trim the aircraft to maintain the glide attitude without control pressure.
• Effects on controls during glide:
  • Controls are less effective; more input may be needed.
  • May need left rudder pressure to maintain straight flight due to reduced propeller slipstream.
  • Ailerons remain effective; use appropriate control inputs.
• Clearing the engine:
  • During prolonged idle descents, briefly increase throttle to around 1500 RPM every 30 seconds.
• Leveling off from a descent:
  • Start level-off 50 to 100 feet before the desired altitude, depending on rate of descent.
  • Apply cruise power as the desired altitude is approached.
  • Adjust pitch to level flight attitude, coordinating altitude and airspeed smoothly.

Diligent practice of these maneuvers forms the foundation for more advanced flight training.