Four Fundamentals

Private Pilot License (PPL) Notes

This section covers the four fundamental maneuvers of flight and their importance in controlling an airplane using proper pitch, bank, and power settings.

The Four Fundamentals of Flight:

1. Turns
2. Straight and Level Flight
3. Climbs
4. Descents

Attitude and Control:

1. Understanding Attitude:
   1. The position of the airplane relative to the horizon.
   2. Use external references (horizon) and internal instruments (attitude indicator).
2. Developing Awareness:
   1. Consciously focus on the relationship between the airplane and the horizon.
   2. With practice, this awareness becomes instinctive.
3. Divided Attention:
   1. Regularly check all attitude references.
   2. Combine visual references with instrument cross-check.

Primary Flight Instruments:

1. Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon)
2. Altimeter
3. Heading Indicator
4. Airspeed Indicator
5. Turn Coordinator

Components of Airplane Control:

1. Pitch Control
2. Bank Control
3. Power Setting:
   1. Proper combination of pitch and power yields predictable performance.

Executing Turns:

1. Use of Primary Controls:
   1. Ailerons
   2. Rudder
   3. Elevator
2. Types of Turns:
   1. Shallow Bank Turns (less than 20 degrees):
      1. Airplane tends to return to wings-level due to stability.
      2. Requires holding aileron pressure to maintain bank.
   2. Medium Bank Turns (20 to 45 degrees):
      1. Airplane stays in bank without continuous aileron pressure.
   3. Steep Bank Turns (greater than 45 degrees):
      2. Overbanking tendency requires opposite aileron pressure to prevent increasing bank.
3. Coordination in Turns:
   1. Simultaneously apply aileron and rudder pressure in the direction of the turn.
   2. Use elevator back pressure to maintain altitude.
4. Adverse Yaw:
   1. Occurs when the airplane yaws opposite the direction of a turn due to differential lift and drag.
   2. Use rudder to counteract adverse yaw.

Maintaining Attitude in Turns:

1. Visual References:
   1. Use the angle between the wing and the horizon to establish bank.
   2. Use a point on the engine cowl or windshield aligned with the horizon for pitch.
2. Body Position:
   1. Stay upright in relation to the airplane.
   2. Avoid leaning, as it can affect visual references.
3. Clearing Turns:
   1. Always look in the direction of the turn before initiating to avoid traffic conflicts.

Rolling In and Out of Turns:

1. Entering a Turn:
   1. Apply aileron and rudder pressure in the direction of the turn.
   2. Increase elevator back pressure as bank angle increases.
   3. Neutralize controls when desired bank angle is achieved.
2. Exiting a Turn:
   1. Apply aileron and rudder pressure opposite the turn.
   2. Decrease elevator back pressure as bank decreases.
   3. Neutralize controls as wings level.
3. Anticipating Roll-Out:
   1. Begin rollout before reaching desired heading:
      1. Lead by 10 degrees for shallow turns.
      2. Lead by 15 degrees for medium turns.
      3. Lead by 25 degrees for steep turns.

Coordination and Balance:

1. Balanced Turns:
   1. Ensure horizontal lift equals centrifugal force.
   2. Check the inclinometer (ball) to maintain balance.
2. Slips:
   1. Ball is toward inside of the turn.
   2. Indicates bank angle too great for rate of turn.
   3. Feel as if slipping toward low wing.
   4. Correct by decreasing bank angle or increasing rate of turn with rudder.
3. Skids:
   1. Ball is toward outside of the turn.
   2. Indicates bank angle too shallow for rate of turn.
   3. Feel outward pull.
   4. Correct by increasing bank angle or reducing rate of turn with rudder.
4. Body Sensations:
   1. Be cautious; body sensations can be misleading without a visible horizon.
   2. Rely on instruments to confirm coordination.

Practice and Proficiency:

1. Regularly practice the four fundamentals to:
   1. Learn proper use of controls.
   2. Establish and maintain proper attitude.
   3. Improve divided attention and scanning techniques.
2. Develop instinctive awareness of aircraft attitude.
3. Enhance safety through proficiency.

Remember, mastering the four fundamentals is essential for safe and effective flying. Continual practice will build the skills necessary to control the aircraft confidently in all maneuvers.